Ceramics Cheatsheet
Advanced Ceramic Materials
| Material Type | Composition | Max Temperature | Applications | Properties |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Technical Porcelain | High alumina, low iron | 2650°F (1450°C) | Electrical insulators, lab ware | High strength, low porosity |
| Alumina (Al₂O₃) | 85-99% aluminum oxide | 3200°F (1760°C) | Cutting tools, wear parts | Extreme hardness, chemical resistance |
| Zirconia (ZrO₂) | Zirconium oxide | 4800°F (2650°C) | Dental implants, engine parts | Toughness, biocompatibility |
| Silicon Carbide | SiC compound | 4900°F (2700°C) | Kiln furniture, abrasives | Thermal shock resistance |
| Cordierite | Mg-Al-Si system | 2500°F (1370°C) | Kiln shelves, automotive | Low thermal expansion |
| Mullite | Al₆Si₂O₁₃ | 3200°F (1760°C) | Refractory applications | High temperature stability |
Ceramic Chemistry Fundamentals
| Oxide | Formula | Function | Typical % Range | Effects |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Silica | SiO₂ | Glass former | 45-75% | Hardness, thermal expansion |
| Alumina | Al₂O₃ | Refractory | 10-25% | Viscosity, durability |
| Potash | K₂O | Flux | 0-6% | Lowers melting point |
| Soda | Na₂O | Flux | 0-4% | Reduces viscosity |
| Calcia | CaO | Flux | 0-12% | Promotes crystal formation |
| Magnesia | MgO | Flux/Refractory | 0-8% | Reduces thermal expansion |
| Iron Oxide | Fe₂O₃ | Colourant/Flux | 0-10% | Colour, reduces melting point |
| Titania | TiO₂ | Opacifier | 0-15% | Opacity, crystallization |
Advanced Firing Atmospheres
| Atmosphere Type | Oxygen Level | Temperature Range | Colour Effects | Applications |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Oxidation | Excess oxygen | All temperatures | Bright, clear colours | Electric kilns, bright glazes |
| Neutral | Balanced | All temperatures | True glaze colours | Consistent results |
| Reduction | Oxygen starved | Cone 8-12 | Copper reds, celadons | Gas kilns, special effects |
| Heavy Reduction | Very low oxygen | Cone 8-12 | Metallic lusters | Experimental glazes |
| Salt/Soda | Variable | Cone 8-10 | Orange peel texture | Atmospheric glazing |
| Anagama | Variable reduction | Cone 8-12 | Natural ash effects | Wood firing |
Pyrometric Cone Chart
| Cone Number | Fahrenheit | Celsius | Typical Use | Clay Bodies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 022 | 1112°F | 600°C | Overglaze decoration | N/A |
| 018 | 1319°F | 715°C | Luster firing | N/A |
| 010 | 1657°F | 903°C | Raku, low-fire glazes | Earthenware |
| 04 | 1945°F | 1063°C | Bisque, majolica | Earthenware |
| 1 | 2109°F | 1154°C | Low-fire glazes | Earthenware |
| 6 | 2232°F | 1222°C | Mid-fire glazes | Stoneware |
| 10 | 2345°F | 1285°C | High-fire glazes | Stoneware, porcelain |
| 14 | 2491°F | 1366°C | Refractory testing | Fire clay |
Glaze Chemistry Calculations
| Calculation Type | Formula | Purpose | Normal Range | Critical Factors |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Expansion | Seger formula analysis | Fit to clay body | 5.0-7.0 | Prevents crazing/shivering |
| Silica:Alumina Ratio | SiO₂:Al₂O₃ | Glaze stability | 6:1 to 10:1 | Prevents devitrification |
| Flux Unity | RO + R₂O = 1.0 | Molecular balance | 1.0 exactly | Proper melting |
| Neutral Atmosphere | Fe₂O₃ + FeO calculation | Iron behavior | Variable | Colour development |
Advanced Glazing Techniques
| Technique | Skill Level | Equipment | Temperature | Effects |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Crystalline | Expert | Slow-cool kiln | Cone 9-10 | Large crystal formation |
| Oil Spot | Advanced | Reduction kiln | Cone 8-10 | Metallic spots in glaze |
| Copper Red | Expert | Heavy reduction | Cone 8-10 | Deep red colouration |
| Celadon | Advanced | Light reduction | Cone 8-10 | Jade-like green |
| Tenmoku | Advanced | Oxidation/reduction | Cone 8-10 | Brown to black with highlights |
| Shino | Advanced | Reduction | Cone 8-10 | Carbon trapping effects |
| Ash Glazes | Intermediate | Wood ash | Cone 8-12 | Natural, varied effects |
Kiln Atmosphere Control
| Control Method | Equipment | Precision | Cost | Applications |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Damper Control | Manual dampers | Low | Low | Basic atmosphere adjustment |
| Primary Air | Burner adjustment | Medium | Low | Flame characteristics |
| Secondary Air | Adjustable ports | Medium | Medium | Fine atmosphere control |
| Oxygen Probe | Electronic monitoring | High | High | Precise measurement |
| Computer Control | Automated systems | Very High | Very High | Repeatable results |
| Atmosphere Burners | Specialized burners | High | High | Professional control |
Ceramic Defect Analysis
| Defect Category | Visual Indicators | Root Causes | Analysis Methods | Solutions |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Body Defects | Cracks, warping, bloating | Clay preparation, firing | Thermal analysis, XRD | Recipe adjustment |
| Glaze Defects | Crawling, pinholing, crazing | Application, chemistry | Microscopy, thermal expansion | Reformulation |
| Colour Issues | Wrong colours, variations | Atmosphere, contamination | Spectroscopy, atmosphere logs | Process control |
| Structural | Warping, cracking | Thermal stress | Thermal analysis | Firing schedule |
| Surface | Texture problems | Application technique | Visual inspection | Technique training |
Industrial Ceramic Applications
| Industry | Product Types | Material Requirements | Quality Standards | Testing Methods |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Electronics | Insulators, capacitors | High purity, precise dimensions | IPC standards | Electrical testing |
| Aerospace | Thermal barriers, composites | High temperature, low weight | AS9100 | Thermal cycling |
| Medical | Implants, instruments | Biocompatibility, sterility | ISO 13485 | Biological testing |
| Automotive | Sensors, filters | Thermal shock resistance | TS 16949 | Durability testing |
| Chemical | Corrosion resistant parts | Chemical inertness | ASTM standards | Chemical resistance |
| Energy | Fuel cells, batteries | Ionic conductivity | IEEE standards | Electrochemical testing |
Advanced Ceramic Testing
| Test Type | Standard | Purpose | Equipment | Interpretation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Thermal Expansion | ASTM C372 | Glaze fit | Dilatometer | Expansion curves |
| Thermal Shock | ASTM C1525 | Durability | Controlled heating/cooling | Crack formation |
| Porosity | ASTM C373 | Absorption | Vacuum, balance | Water absorption % |
| Strength | ASTM C1161 | Mechanical properties | Universal testing machine | Modulus of rupture |
| Thermal Conductivity | ASTM C408 | Heat transfer | Thermal property analyzer | Conductivity values |
| Phase Analysis | ASTM C25 | Crystal structure | X-ray diffraction | Phase identification |
Refractory Materials
| Material | Max Service Temp | Thermal Shock Resistance | Chemical Resistance | Applications |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| High Alumina | 3200°F (1760°C) | Good | Excellent | Kiln furniture, crucibles |
| Silicon Carbide | 4900°F (2700°C) | Excellent | Good | Kiln shelves, burner nozzles |
| Zirconia | 4800°F (2650°C) | Fair | Excellent | Oxygen sensors, crucibles |
| Cordierite | 2500°F (1370°C) | Excellent | Good | Kiln furniture, honeycomb |
| Mullite | 3200°F (1760°C) | Good | Excellent | High-temperature insulators |
| Fused Silica | 3000°F (1650°C) | Excellent | Good | Molds, specialized applications |
Ceramic Engineering Properties
| Property | Measurement Units | Typical Range | Significance | Testing Standard |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Density | g/cm³ | 1.8-6.0 | Porosity, strength | ASTM C373 |
| Hardness | Mohs scale | 6-9 | Wear resistance | ASTM C849 |
| Flexural Strength | MPa | 50-1000 | Load bearing | ASTM C1161 |
| Thermal Conductivity | W/m·K | 1-200 | Heat transfer | ASTM C408 |
| Dielectric Constant | Dimensionless | 4-10000 | Electrical properties | ASTM D150 |
| Fracture Toughness | MPa·m^0.5 | 1-15 | Crack resistance | ASTM C1421 |
Quality Control Systems
| Control Stage | Parameters | Monitoring Method | Acceptance Criteria | Corrective Actions |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Raw Materials | Composition, particle size | Chemical analysis, sieve | Specification compliance | Supplier notification |
| Forming | Dimensions, density | Caliper, weight | Drawing tolerances | Process adjustment |
| Drying | Moisture content | Moisture meter | <2% moisture | Extended drying |
| Bisque | Temperature, time | Pyrometric cones | Complete firing | Refire if needed |
| Glazing | Thickness, coverage | Visual, weight | Uniform coating | Strip and reglaze |
| Final Fire | Temperature, atmosphere | Data logging | Specification compliance | Adjust parameters |
Environmental and Safety Considerations
| Hazard Category | Specific Risks | Protection Methods | Monitoring | Regulations |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dust Exposure | Silicosis, lung disease | Wet methods, ventilation | Air sampling | OSHA PEL |
| Kiln Emissions | Toxic gases, particulates | Proper ventilation, scrubbers | Stack monitoring | EPA guidelines |
| Chemical Handling | Toxic glazes, acids | PPE, training | Medical monitoring | Right-to-know laws |
| Noise | Kiln fans, machinery | Hearing protection | Sound level monitoring | OSHA standards |
| Heat Exposure | Burns, heat stress | Protective clothing | Temperature monitoring | Safety protocols |
Advanced Ceramic Business Models
| Business Type | Investment Level | Skill Requirements | Market Focus | Profit Margins |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Technical Ceramics | $100K-1M+ | Engineering degree | Industrial clients | 20-40% |
| Custom Glazing | $25K-100K | Advanced ceramics | Pottery studios | 30-50% |
| Kiln Services | $50K-200K | Firing expertise | Local potters | 40-60% |
| Ceramic Testing | $200K-500K | Materials science | Quality control | 50-70% |
| Refractory Supply | $100K-500K | Technical knowledge | Industrial furnaces | 15-25% |
| Consulting | $10K-50K | Expert knowledge | Ceramics industry | 60-80% |